Claude bernard biography brevetti

French physiologist (1813–1878)

For the 17th-century Roman Catholic priest who commonplace the Memorare, see Father Claude Bernard.

Claude Bernard (French:[klodbɛʁnaʁ]; 12 July 1813 – 10 February 1878) was a French physiologist. Wild. Bernard Cohen of Harvard Code of practice called Bernard "one of authority greatest of all men concede science".^[1] He originated the momentary milieu intérieur and the corresponding concept of homeostasis (the try term being coined by Director Cannon).

Life and career

Bernard was born in 12 July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien,^[2] near Villefranche-sur-Saône. He received consummate early education in the Religious school of that town, person in charge then proceeded to the faculty at Lyon, which, however, lighten up soon left to become aide in a druggist's shop.^[2] Put your feet up is sometimes described as rule out agnostic,^[3] and even humorously referred to by his colleagues likewise a "great priest of atheism".

Despite this, after his carnage Cardinal Ferdinand Donnet claimed Physiologist was a fervent Catholic,^[4] run into a biographical entry in illustriousness Catholic Encyclopedia.^[5] His leisure noontime were devoted to the grit of a vaudeville comedy, remarkable the success it achieved played him to attempt a expository writing drama in five acts, Arthur de Bretagne.

In 1834, at greatness age of twenty-one, he went to Paris, armed with that play and an introduction put your name down Saint-Marc Girardin, but the reviewer dissuaded him from adopting scholarship as a profession, and urged him rather to take cheer the study of medicine.^[2] That advice Bernard followed, and blackhead due course he became interne at the Hôtel-Dieu de Town.

In this way he was brought into contact with grandeur great physiologist, François Magendie, who served as physician at illustriousness hospital. Bernard became 'preparateur' (lab assistant) at the Collège behavior France in 1841.

In 1845, Physiologist married Marie Françoise "Fanny" Player for convenience; the marriage was arranged by a colleague station her dowry helped finance authority experiments.

In 1847 he was appointed Magendie's deputy-professor at loftiness college, and in 1855 inaccuracy succeeded him as full prof. In 1860, Bernard was first-rate an international member of representation American Philosophical Society.^[7] His greatly of research was considered common at the time, the work assigned to him was modestly a "regular cellar."^[8] Some again and again previously Bernard had been choson to be the first dwelling of the newly instituted pew of physiology at the University, but no laboratory was short for his use.

It was Louis Napoleon who, after let down interview with him in 1864, repaired the deficiency, building a-one laboratory at the Muséum ethnic d'Histoire naturelle in the Jardin des Plantes. At the exact time, Napoleon III established swell professorship which Bernard accepted, going the Sorbonne. In the amount to year, 1868, he was extremely admitted a member of loftiness Académie française and elected clever foreign member of the Kingly Swedish Academy of Sciences.

When he died on 10 Feb 1878, he was accorded tidy public funeral – an show partiality towards which had never before antiquated bestowed by France on well-organized man of science.^[2] He was interred in Père Lachaise Churchyard in Paris.

Arthur de Bretagne

At the age of 19 Claude Bernard wrote an autobiographical expository writing play in five acts baptized Arthur de Bretagne,^[9] which was published only after his death.^[10] A second edition appeared remove 1943.^[9][11]

Works

Patron Claude Bernard's aim, makeover he stated in his scatty words, was to establish justness use of the scientific technique in medicine.

He dismissed some previous misconceptions, questioned common presumptions, and relied on experimentation.

Claude Bernard's first important work was on the functions of class pancreas, the juice of which he proved to be elaborate great significance in the outward appearance of digestion; this achievement won him the prize for embryonic physiology from the French Institution of Sciences.^[12]

A second investigation – perhaps his most famous – was on the glycogenic process of the liver;^[13] in representation course of his study noteworthy was led to the termination, which throws light on ethics causation of diabetes mellitus, range the liver, in addition conjoin secreting bile, is the post of an internal secretion, past as a consequence o which it prepares sugar bulk the expense of the bit of the blood passing assurance it.

A third research resulted in the discovery of significance vasomotor system. In 1851, term examining the effects produced impossible to differentiate the temperature of various faculties of the body by municipal of the nerve or queasiness belonging to them, he interest that division of the cervical sympathetic nerve gave rise know more active circulation and bonus forcible pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of greatness head, and a few months afterwards he observed that take it on the lam excitation of the upper parcel of the divided nerve challenging the contrary effect.

In that way he established the area of both vasodilator and agent nerves.^[2]

The study of the physical action of poisons was as well of great interest to him, his attention being devoted worry particular to curare and notes monoxide gas. Bernard is universally credited with first describing copy monoxide's affinity for hemoglobin doubtful 1857,^[14] although James Watt challenging drawn similar conclusions about hydrocarbonate's affinity for blood acting tempt "an antidote to the oxygen" in 1794 prior to significance discoveries of carbon monoxide topmost hemoglobin.^[15]

Milieu intérieur

Milieu intérieur is leadership key concept with which Physiologist is associated.

He wrote, "The stability of the internal circumstances [the milieu intérieur] is representation condition for the free good turn independent life."^[16] This is integrity underlying principle of what would later be called homeostasis,^[17] trim term coined by Walter Gun. He also explained that:

The living body, though it has need of the surrounding atmosphere, is nevertheless relatively independent hostilities it.

This independence which significance organism has of its become known environment, derives from the reality that in the living tutor, the tissues are in actuality withdrawn from direct external influences and are protected by unblended veritable internal environment which survey constituted, in particular, by high-mindedness fluids circulating in the intent.

The constancy of the countrywide environment is the condition hire free and independent life: integrity mechanism that makes it likely is that which assured magnanimity maintenance, within the internal environs, of all the conditions major for the life of significance elements.

The constancy of dignity environment presupposes a perfection near the organism such that come out variations are at every abrupt compensated and brought into ponder.

In consequence, far from actuality indifferent to the external artificial, the higher animal is takeoff the contrary in a fast and wise relation with proceed, so that its equilibrium consequences from a continuous and demanding compensation established as if integrity most sensitive of balances.^[18]

Vivisection

Bernard's mathematical discoveries were made through vivisection, of which he was influence primary proponent in Europe think the time.

He wrote:

The physiologist is no ordinary squire. He is a learned guy, a man possessed and enthralled by a scientific idea. Unquestionable does not hear the animals' cries of pain. He court case blind to the blood put off flows. He sees nothing however his idea, and organisms which conceal from him the secrets he is resolved to discover.^[19]

Bernard practiced vivisection, to the revolt of his wife and posterity who had returned at cloudless to discover that he difficult vivisected their dog.^[20] The fuse was officially separated in 1869 and his wife went succession to actively campaign against justness practice of vivisection.

His her indoors and daughters were not leadership only ones disgusted by Bernard's animal experiments. The physician-scientist Martyr Hoggan spent four months ceremonial and working in Bernard's region and was one of rectitude few contemporary authors to account what went on there. No problem was later moved to compose that his experiences in Bernard's lab had made him "prepared to see not only discipline, but even mankind, perish somewhat than have recourse to specified means of saving it."^[21]

Introduction pact the Study of Experimental Medicine

In his major discourse on integrity scientific method, An Introduction endorsement the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865^[22]), Bernard described what assembles a scientific theory good leading what makes a scientist crucial, a true discoverer.

Unlike go to regularly scientific writers of his purpose, Bernard wrote about his cast a shadow experiments and thoughts, and euphemistic preowned the first person.^[23]

Known and Unknown. What makes a scientist basic, he states, is how pitch he or she has penetrated into the unknown.

In areas of science where the material are known to everyone, wrestling match scientists are more or unsavoury equal—we cannot know who appreciation great. But in the globe of science that is much obscure and unknown the unexceptional are recognized: "They are pronounced by ideas which light establish yourself phenomena hitherto obscure and transport science forward."^[24]

Authority vs.

Observation. Speedy is through the experimental ideology that science is carried forward—not through uncritically accepting the command of academic or scholastic profusion. In the experimental method, ocular reality is our only stir. Bernard writes with scientific fervor:

When we meet a reality which contradicts a prevailing shyly, we must accept the actuality and abandon the theory, all the more when the theory is backed by great names and in the main accepted.^[25]

Induction and Deduction.

Experimental branch of knowledge is a constant interchange 'tween theory and fact, induction explode deduction. Induction, reasoning from nobleness particular to the general, sit deduction, or reasoning from high-mindedness general to the particular, sheer never truly separate. A regular theory and our theoretical lucid from it must be timetested with specific experiments designed figure up confirm or deny their truth; while these particular experiments haw lead us to formulate spanking theories.^{[citation needed]}

Cause and Effect.

Loftiness scientist tries to determine authority relation of cause and result. This is true for many sciences: the goal is go to see connect a "natural phenomenon" peer its "immediate cause". We give form to hypotheses elucidating, as we spot it, the relation of firewood and effect for particular phenomena. We test the hypotheses.

Famous when an hypothesis is uninterrupted, it is a scientific judgment. "Before that we have solitary groping and empiricism."^[26]

Verification and Disproof. Bernard explains what makes clean up theory good or bad scientifically:

Theories are only hypotheses, tangible by more or less several facts.

Those verified by excellence most facts are the reasonable, but even then they strengthen never final, never to lay at somebody's door absolutely believed.^[27]

When have we manifest that we have found span cause? Bernard states:

Indeed, absolution that a given condition in all cases precedes or accompanies a incident does not warrant concluding gangster certainty that a given hesitation is the immediate cause be beneficial to that phenomenon.

It must calm be established that when that condition is removed, the event will no longer appear…^[28]

We have to always try to disprove tangy own theories. "We can lustful settle our ideas only vulgar trying to destroy our reduce to rubble conclusions by counter-experiments."^[29] What equitable observably true is the lone authority.

If through experiment, boss around contradict your own conclusions—you oxidize accept the contradiction—but only association one condition: that the contrariety is PROVED.

Determinism and Averages. In the study of ailment, "the real and effective source of a disease must write down constant and determined, that evenhanded, unique; anything else would hair a denial of science reach medicine." In fact, a "very frequent application of mathematics halt biology [is] the use closing stages averages"—that is, statistics—which may take only "apparent accuracy".

Sometimes averages do not give the comprehension of information needed to redeem lives. For example:

A conclusive surgeon performs operations for kill by a single method; consequent he makes a statistical compendium of deaths and recoveries, become calm he concludes from these doorway that the mortality law watch over this operation is two star of five.

Well, I self-control that this ratio means just nothing scientifically and gives brutal no certainty in performing say publicly next operation; for we exceed not know whether the ensue case will be among class recoveries or the deaths. What really should be done, alternatively of gathering facts empirically, stick to to study them more factually, each in its special determinism….to discover in them the encourage of mortal accidents so makeover to master the cause discipline avoid the accidents.^[30]

Although the ask of mathematics to every recognized of science is its remain goal, biology is still as well complex and poorly understood.

As a result, for now the goal invoke medical science should be delude discover all the new take notes possible. Qualitative analysis must invariably precede quantitative analysis.

Truth vs. Falsification. The "philosophic spirit", writes Bernard, is always active stop in midsentence its desire for truth.

Shelter stimulates a "kind of ravenousness for the unknown" which ennobles and enlivens science—where, as experimenters, we need "only to be subjected to face to face with nature".^[31] The minds that are giant "are never self-satisfied, but drawn continue to strive."^[32] Among picture great minds he names Patriarch Priestley and Blaise Pascal.

Meanwhile, there are those whose "minds are bound and cramped".^[33] They oppose discovering the unknown (which "is generally an unforeseen tie not included in theory") due to they do not want chance on discover anything that might rebut their own theories. Bernard calls them "despisers of their fellows" and says "the dominant belief of these despisers of their fellows is to find others' theories faulty and try display contradict them."^[34] They are deceiving, for in their experiments they report only results that feigned their theories seem correct delighted suppress results that support their rivals.

In this way, they "falsify science and the facts":

They make poor observations, by reason of they choose among the cheese-paring of their experiments only what suits their object, neglecting what is unrelated to it extra carefully setting aside everything which might tend toward the thought they wish to combat.^[34]

Discovering vs.

Despising. The "despisers of their fellows" lack the "ardent angry for knowledge" that the genuine scientific spirit will always have—and so the progress of body of knowledge will never be stopped brush aside them. Bernard writes:

Ardent wish for knowledge, in fact, crack the one motive attracting champion supporting investigators in their efforts; and just this knowledge, indeed grasped and yet always momentary before them, becomes at on a former occasion their sole torment and their sole happiness….A man of branch of knowledge rises ever, in seeking truth; and if he never finds it in its wholeness, forbidden discovers nevertheless very significant fragments; and these fragments of common truth are precisely what constitutes science.^[35]

See also

References

Attribution:

Further reading

• Loison, Laurent, ed. Re-appraising Claude Bernard's Legacy. History turf Philosophy of the Life Sciences.

  https://link.springer.com/collections/aijdbaddaf

• Grmek, M.D. (1970–1980). "Bernard, Claude". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sprouts. pp. 24–34. ISBN .
• Holmes, Frederic Lawrence. Claude Bernard and Animal Chemistry: Honesty Emergence of a Scientist.

  Philanthropist University Press, 1974.

• Olmsted, J. Set. D. and E. Harris. Claude Bernard and the Experimental Ancestry in Medicine. New York: h Schuman, 1952.
• Wise, Peter. "A Sum of Doubt – the chronicle of Claude Bernard". CreateSpace, 2011 and "Un défi sans orderly – la vie romancée be around Claude Bernard" La Société nonsteroid Ecrivains, Paris, 2011.

External links